The Abbasid caliphate was the third and one of the most important Islamic caliphates after Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). It was founded by the descendants of Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) uncle, Abbas ibn Abd ul-Muttalib. In 750 CE, they overthrew the Umayyad caliphate and took over their territories.
The Abbasid era, lasted from 750 CE to 1258 CE, had a lasting impact on the world in many ways. Baghdad, the caliphate's capital, became a hub for scholars, with institutions like the House of Wisdom (Bait-ul-Hikmah) attracting scientists and thinkers who made advancements in the fields of astronomy, geography, mathematics, philosophy, medicine and chemistry. The advancements made during this period significantly influenced the development of modern inventions.
However, internal conflicts and rebellions weakened the caliphate over time. Many states broke away and formed their own caliphates. The Abbasid caliphate fell in 1258 after the Mongol invasion, which destroyed its capital, Baghdad.
Here is a brief history of the Abbasid caliphate, offering insights into its foundation, contribution, and legacy.
Who Were the Abbasids?
The Abbasid dynasty gets its name from the Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) youngest uncle, Abbas ibn Abd ul-Muttalib (RA). He was a very prominent member of the Islamic community at the time of the Prophet (PBUH).
The Rise of the Abbasids
Abbasids started plotting against the Umayyads in 717-720. Muhammad ibn ‘Ali, a great-grandson of Abbas (RA), started the revolt. They exploited grievances against the Umayyad Caliphate from several different factions, including Shias, non-Arabs, and Persians, who were against Umayyad policies like heavy taxation, discrimination, and limited religious freedom.
Persians, in particular, helped the Abbasids the most. Abu Muslim, a Persian general, defeated the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, in the Battle of the Zab River in 750 CE, effectively ending the caliphate. The entire Umayyad family members were massacred by the Abbasids later on, and only one person survived, Abd al-Rahman I, who escaped to Spain.
Difference Between Umayyads and Abbasids
After taking over, the Abbasids started differentiating themselves from the Umayyads. The Umayyads imposed heavy restrictions and taxes on non-Muslims like Jews and Christians, whereas the Abbaids allowed them to practise their religion freely. More importantly, they also fostered an environment of openness known as ‘free thought,’ where culture, science, philosophy, and arts could be discussed openly alongside religion.
The Umayyads were primarily focused on the military expansion of the caliphate, and they were quite successful in this because, at its peak, the caliphate stretched from Spain to India. The Abbasids did not focus that much on expansion and were happy with what they got. They were more interested in expanding knowledge among the populace and heavily invested in educational institutes and improving the region's infrastructure.
Baghdad Becomes the State Capital
In 762 CE, the Abbasids moved the capital of their caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad because of the city’s strategic location for trade routes, both land and sea, connecting the Silk Routes. Also, the city had a better climate and ideal terrain for building fortifications to secure it from invaders.
Al-Mansur, the second Abbasid caliph, ordered the construction of a new capital near the Tigris River in Baghdad, inspired by traditional Persian Sasanian urban design.
Due to its shape, Baghdad was called the round city. Four gates were built around its wall, allowing people and trade caravans to pass through it. This city design was heavily influenced by ancient Persian architecture.
Government and Administration of Abbasids
Considering the size of the caliphate, the Abbasids divided it into 24 provinces. Under the Abbasids, the position of vizier was established to distribute central authority. They used bureaucracy to govern the lands and replaced the old Arabian aristocracy.
The Abbasids raised revenue by tax farming, which involved auctioning the right to collect taxes to the highest bidder. They also granted iqṭāʿs to the military, which meant the right to collect taxes from landowners. The land remained the legal property of the owner, but the military officer was entitled to collect the kharāj tax from the owner.
The Abbasids established a system of inspectors called muhtasibs to ensure proper weights and measures were used and that dishonest practices were avoided.
A post office served every regional metropolis, and paved roads linked Baghdad with other cities and towns. The Abbaids relied on mail delivery to manage their caliphate. If there was any news that had to be delivered to the caliph in Baghdad, it was done through mail, which was delivered via a state-run courier system known as ‘Barid.’ The Baghdad central post office had a map with directions marked for the distance between each town.
Trade and Economy of Abbasid Caliphate
During the Abbasid Empire, Baghdad quickly became the world's economic capital. Caliphs raised revenue primarily through taxes and raids (particularly in Byzantine territory). Trade, however, played the most pivotal role in making the empire and its people prosperous.
Furthermore, the Abbasids invested heavily in infrastructure, particularly in constructing roads and canals. These improvements made it easier for goods and people to move across the empire, further increasing trade. As mentioned, the caliphate established a mail system for better communication and to manage the empire, which also helped coordinate economic activities.
Many goods were sold in Baghdad's markets (suqs) from as far away as Russia, Africa, China, and Europe. Baghdad was the first region west of China to produce and sell large quantities of paper, and it is known as the "cradle of modern finance," which includes banks, check writing, and currency exchange markets.
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Golden Age of the Abbasids
The Islamic Golden Age is generally considered to have started during the rule of the Abbasids under the reign of Harun-Al-Rashid (786-809). Abbasids stressed the importance of acquiring knowledge and getting educated in the light of the hadith and Quran. Such as the Holy Prophet (PBUH) said:
“The ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr.”
(Al-Jaami' al-Saghîr)
The Abbasids imported paper from China to translate ancient Chinese, Roman, Persian, Indian, North African, Egyptian, and Greek texts, spreading knowledge and promoting intellectual advancements. Later, they built their paper factory in Samarkand.
Baghdad became one of the largest centres of knowledge and intellectual activity in the Islamic world. The House of Wisdom, known as ‘Bait-ul-Hikmah,’ was built where scholars worked to translate the ancient texts into Arabic. The translation work also led to a cultural exchange, with people from other regions coming to Baghdad to gain knowledge. These achievements later influenced the European Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries.
The translation work further led to many discoveries and advancements in fields such as maths, literature, science, astronomy, philosophy, medicine, optics, and architecture. All the advancements during this period laid the foundation for modern scientific methods and artificial intelligence (AI).
Manuscripts and Calligraphy During Abbasid Era
Quranic manuscript production increased under the Abbasid Caliphate mainly between the late 8th and early 10th centuries because of paper import and the establishment of paper mills. The Abbasid court and the wealthy elite in Muslim society frequently commissioned copies of the Quran during this time.
Kufic script is the earliest form of calligraphy used for Abbasid Qur'ans. It is marked by precise, angular letters, generous spacing, horizontal extensions at the baseline, and geometric proportions.
This script was typically used to copy Qurans written on parchment and arranged horizontally and it was very popular during the second half of the 8th century.
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Decline and Fragmentation
While the Abbasid Caliphate enjoyed considerable success in the late 8th century, it faced internal and external challenges. Due to limited communication, the Abbasid emperors were unable to adequately solve the political challenges and problems of the large empire.
Several revolts undermined the caliphate, and several factions formed their own caliphate and territory. In 793 CE, the Shia dynasty of the Idrisids seized control of Fez, Morocco. Further, the Berber Kharijites established a sovereign state in North Africa in 801 CE.
The Fatimids, who trace their ancestry to Fatima, the Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) daughter, rebelled against the Abbasids in 909 CE. They established a new caliphate in North Africa, and eventually, in 920, they declared the city of Mahdia on the shore of Tunisia their new capital. In 928, Abd al-Rahman III, the Umayyad ruler, established his separate caliphate and severed ties with the Abbasids.
In 945, the major blow came when Buyids took control of Baghdad and ended the Abbasid caliphate rule. They kept the Abbasid caliphs as symbolic representatives.
A century later, in 1055, the Seljuk Turks conquered large land areas from Central Asia to Anatolia. The Buyids were pushed out of Baghdad by Tughril Beg, a Sultan Seljuk. However, the caliphs remained as symbolic leaders, just like before.
The Crusader Wars and Saladin
When the Crusader Wars started in 1096, no leader of the Islamic state could unite all the factions from different territories to defend against such an imminent attack. The Abbasids were taken over by Seljuks, who were fragmented into different factions and could not stand against the well-prepared Crusaders.
As a result, Jerusalem humiliatingly fell during the First Crusade, and the Christians established the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1099 and continued to rule here for the next 90 years.
However, the Abbasids' fortunes changed in 1187 when Saladin Ayubbi defeated the Crusades, retook the city of Jerusalem, abolished the Fatimid Caliphate, bought the former Fatimid lands again under the Abbasids and united all the different factions of Muslims under the name of Jihad.
The Mongol Invasion and Fall of Baghdad
The Abbasid Caliphate ultimately ended in 1258 AD when the Mongols, led by Hulagu Khan, sacked Baghdad. Al-Must'asim, the last caliph, committed a grave error when he disbanded most of his army and accepted Hulagu Khan's challenge. The exact reasons for such a foolish move are debated to this day. One thing is clear, the Caliph expected military support from all corners of Islam, but alas, no one came as everyone was dealing with their own problems, and after Saladin's death, there was no unity.
When the Mongol forces besieged Baghdad, the entire city was destroyed, and the entire population was massacred ruthlessly.
Conclusion
It is widely acknowledged that the Abbasid caliphate was the most important caliphate in Islamic history. During this period, major advances were made in culture, arts, maths, and science.
The Golden Age of Islam focused on the pursuit of knowledge, and many prominent scholars and researchers contributed to the invention and development of new ideas that are still relevant today.
Although the Abbasids ultimately succumbed to internal struggles and external forces, they left behind a lasting legacy.
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